Which set lists the three requirements to infer causality?

Which set lists the three requirements to infer causality?

• A. Covariation; Temporal precedence; Elimination of alternatives
• B. Temporal precedence; Covariation; Randomization
• C. Covariation; Temporal precedence; Control of confounds
• D. Temporal precedence; Elimination of alternatives; Randomization

Answer: (A)

Inferring causality rests on three standards: the cause and effect must covary, the cause must precede the effect in time, and alternative explanations for the relationship must be ruled out. Covariation shows there is an association between the factor and the outcome. Temporal precedence ensures the cause comes before the effect, ruling out reverse causation. Elimination of alternatives means you’ve accounted for or controlled other plausible explanations (confounds) that could produce the observed link. Randomization is a powerful method to help achieve this third goal, but it’s a design tool rather than a requirement itself. So the best set is covariation, temporal precedence, and elimination of alternatives.

Inferring causality rests on three standards: the cause and effect must covary, the cause must precede the effect in time, and alternative explanations for the relationship must be ruled out. Covariation shows there is an association between the factor and the outcome. Temporal precedence ensures the cause comes before the effect, ruling out reverse causation. Elimination of alternatives means you’ve accounted for or controlled other plausible explanations (confounds) that could produce the observed link. Randomization is a powerful method to help achieve this third goal, but it’s a design tool rather than a requirement itself. So the best set is covariation, temporal precedence, and elimination of alternatives.